Historical Periods

Indeed, the uniformity of Egyptian art is quite remarkable. Nevertheless, each historical period has distinctive traits, whether it be fashion, hairstyle, the prominence of a specific deity, innovation, or foreign influence. Art of the major historical periods is briefly presented here, giving a glimpse into the rich artistic expressions, creativity and cleverness of the ancient Egyptians.

Predynastic Period

Egyptian art of this period flourished in independent cultural centres in both Upper and Lower Egypt at sites such as Badari, Naqada, Merimde, and the Fayoum. The artistic expression is quite primitive - as if it were drawn by a child. Stick men herding bovines or hunting gazelles. Stick sailors on boats with numerous oars and a prominent deck cabin. Females standing with hands above their heads. Yet, the exact meaning of these simple drawings somewhat eludes us. The composition of the scenes does not appear to follow strict rules, with an exception or two. Boats were depicted amongst groups of people hunting, wrestling with one another or with wild beasts. Were the Egyptians depicting normal, every day life, a major event, or a funerary procession on the Nile? Who are the female figures with their arms raised above their heads?

Credits: Caroline Rocheleau

Along with drawings painted on tomb walls (such as Tomb 100 at Hierakonpolis) or ceramic vessels, the ancient Egyptians carved exquisite ivory combs with zoomorphic handles, ivory anthropomorphic figurines, and stone palettes. They also made ceramic figurines and magnificent stone vessels. The zoomorphic motifs, either painted or sculpted, are comprised of an interesting variety of animals, reptiles, and birds that are not always equated with Egypt: giraffes, hippos, ostriches, gazelles and numerous horned animals, crocodiles, flamingos, fish, iguanas, turtles, lions, ibis, and dogs. Statuary is developed extremely slowly and is non-existent at this period.

By late Predynastic period, ancient Egyptian art had incredibly matured and can be considered as a transition phase into the Archaic period. Numerous palettes carved in greywacke, a hard dark grey stone, and decorated with animals, emblems of towns and forts, as well as fighting scenes seem to allude to a period of confrontation between groups of people. Possibly the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt.

Archaic or Early Dynastic Period

The Archaic period represents the formative stage of the ancient Egyptian civilisation, as we know it. After the unification of the Two Lands under the rule of a single king, Egyptian art was completely transformed. The chaotic aspect of Predynastic art has been abandoned and replaced by structured compositions. Artistic conventions that were to control Egyptian art for the three millennia to come were adopted during this epoch.

The Narmer palette, the most beautifully preserved monument of the Archaic period, represents King Narmer (Dynasty 0) grabbing a foe by the top knot and about to smite him with his mace head. This prototypical representation of the king would become part of royal iconography until the death of ancient Egyptian civilisation. It symbolised superiority of the Egyptian king, who held a divine office and was the beholder of Maat, cosmic harmony.

Credits: Caroline Rocheleau

Archaic art that has survived is comprised mostly of statuettes of the king wrapped up in a cloak, stelae with the king's name in a serekh, engravings of the king smiting an enemy as well as a few statuettes and stelae of nobles and priests.

Old Kingdom

The epoch also known as the 'age of the pyramids' was an era of great architectural achievement and unsurpassed aestheticism. Statuary reached new heights - literally - as artists produced life size or almost life size statues. Additionally, exquisite details such as inlaid eyes, together with richly coloured paint contributed to their beauty and their lifelike impression. These 'living images' were nevertheless not portraits in the true sense of the modern word even though artists paid a certain attention to facial features. These statues, although elegant and polished, were not intended for public viewing. Private statues of individuals were destined for tombs and were accessible only to priests who would bring for them daily offerings and perform rituals in order to sustain the deceased in the Afterlife.

Royal statues must be considered as an entirely different category, not only because of their superior craftsmanship, also because of their intended use. Statues of kings had a political goal: asseverate the status of the ruler within society.

Paintings and reliefs, which decorated private tombs with scenes of every day life, the deceased performing his tasks and his daily job, family activities, such as hunting and fowling scenes, as well as funerary and religious scenes, attained the same quality of execution as statuary. These scenes ensured the survival (and the pleasure) of the deceased in the Afterlife; should the priest responsible for the upkeep of the tomb and the bringing of offerings fail his duties, the depiction of the deceased sitting at a table garnished with food and drink would, with a little magic of course, suffice to nourish him or her.

Royal reliefs and paintings found in temples serve, once again, a political agenda. Pictures of the king striding forward as if running were representations of Heb Sed festival (the 30 Year Jubilee of the king's reign) during which the king ran laps in order to prove to his people that he was strong and fit to rule. The king could also have been represented bow and arrows in hand, hunting wild beasts in the desert; a scene that intimated his skill as a provider for his people, that demonstrated him as a fearless leader ready to brave wild beasts to protect his country, but mostly as a king who sees that Maat, the goddess and the concept of cosmic harmony, reigns in the Two Lands. There is also the ever-famous smiting scene where, like on the Narmer palette, the king shows his superiority over a foe.

Old Kingdom statues, as well as paintings and reliefs, depicted humans as eternally young and beautiful, staring straight ahead, lost in contemplation. Men were represented at the height of their physical fitness: large shoulders, flat abdomen, muscular biceps and legs. They sported short kilts that showed off the muscles in their thighs and calves. Women were svelte and gracious, and their narrow hips, flat belly and full firm breasts were enhanced by the extremely tight sheet dresses they donned. Most wore wigs, as indicated by a second hairline on their forehead.

Credits: Caroline Rocheleau

There is an inherent nobility exuding from Old Kingdom statuary and reliefs that is somehow absent in the later periods, even during the New Kingdom.

First Intermediate Period

The Old Kingdom ended in disunity and chaos; the centralised power of the king crumbled, a severe drought swept the country, and a civil war broke out. Needless to say, art suffered immensely. Royal workshops being closed, artists had no rigorous training and could only copy Old Kingdom reliefs, paintings and sculptures to the best of their abilities. Some artists had talents, others did not. Human figures with disproportionately long limbs and awkward silhouettes were depicted in curiously rendered actions and movements. Yet, the art of the First Intermediate Period has a certain naive charm.

Credits: Caroline Rocheleau

Middle Kingdom

The Middle Kingdom, referred to as the golden age of ancient Egyptian literature, generally is forgotten when discussing Egyptian art. Yet, even though fewer monuments and masterpieces have survived the passing of time, Middle Kingdom art was perceived as "classical" art by later generations of Pharaohs. Artists of the Late Period were so inspired by the Middle Kingdom that they replicated sculptures and paintings with such great care that even Egyptologists have difficulty ascribing an art piece to one of the two epochs!

Although art appears quite eclectic as a result of different styles adopted during the reign of each king, the royal artists nonetheless achieved great technical quality in their work and, more importantly, intense degrees of individualism and realism. The Egyptians of the Middle Kingdom performed the same activities that Old Kingdom people did and they painted those in their tombs. Middle Kingdom kings built impressive fortresses in Nubia and made sure that the Nubians were aware of their power by having stelae carved with an image of them smiting a Nubian enemy. However, the major differences reside in the different quality of execution, the new expressive and realistic qualities of the art, and the fashion of the time.

During the Eleventh Dynasty, art resembled greatly that of the Old Kingdom, both in artistic rendition and clothing style, even though the quality is not as excellent. Distinct changes occurred after the reign of King Amenemhat the First, the first king of the Twelfth Dynasty. Artistic expression revealed an increasing tendency towards a more expressive style, with greater degree of realism. The most striking examples of individualism date to the reign of King Senwosret the Third, the apex of Egyptian expressionism, if one can call it that. A magnificent granite statue in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo presents the king in the most realistic manner - previously unseen and never later equalled. Senwosret's surprising melancholic facial expression is enhanced by the small sunken eyes, sleepy eyelids, emphasised eyebrow ridges, bags under the eyes, and a downturn smile. Despite this fatigued expression, ancient Egyptian texts describe Senwosret the Third as a self-conscious, determined, and ruthless king.

Also during the Twelfth Dynasty new fashion styles that help differentiate art from previous and later periods appeared. Women now wore their hair / wig in the 'Hathor' style: medium length hair brought over the shoulders and curled at the ends. Like Old Kingdom women, they wore tight dresses. Men wore shoulder length wigs that were very thick at the ends quite different from the short, thin hair of many Old Kingdom men. They also wore a much longer kilt (mid-calf) that very often was tied underneath the arms, a bit like a wrap around dress.

Second Intermediate Period

Little is known of the Second Intermediate Period, a time when Egypt was ruled by foreign kings, the Hyksos. Much as yet to come to light before the epoch can truly be understood. Ongoing excavations at the site of Avaris (the Hyksos capital city situated in the north-east Delta) have revealed the most surprising fragments of painted plaster that resemble Minoan frescoes of the Palace of Knossos in Crete.

New Kingdom

The New Kingdom was an age of international relations during which Egypt was a dominant power in the Near East. The Hyksos invasion had shown the Egyptians their own weakness and had scarred the common Egyptian psyche. Eighteenth Dynasty pharaohs (as they can now be called) extended their territory beyond the borders of Egypt, creating buffer zones to protect their country from further invasions. Lands as far south as modern day Sudan and as north as modern day Syria were under Egyptian domination.

For the first time in its history, Egypt had an actual standing army rather than conscripts and a handful of mercenaries. This new military aspect of ancient Egyptian society had an interesting impact on art. Temples were decorated with kings' military expeditions and exploits, and this time they were doing more than smiting an enemy with a mace head. New Kingdom pharaohs were represented standing in their chariot, reins strapped around the waist, shooting arrows and trampling enemies. Even thought the scene was different, the propagandist message remained unchanged.
(Caroline Rocheleau)